Differences in Educational Achievement By Ethnicity

External Factors

• 87% of UK is White (British)

• 7% of UK is Asian

• 3% of UK is Black

Ethnicity - the fact of state of belonging to a social group that has a common national or cultural tradition

Lawson and Garrod define ethnicity as:

• People who share common history, customs and identity, as well as, in most cases, language and religion, and who see themselves as a distinct unit.

The Statistics

DfES (2010)

• 23% of White male pupils who receive free school meals gained 5 A*-C grades.

• White and Asian pupils on average are higher than Black people.

• Among Asians, Indians do better than Pakistanis and Bangladeshis.

Hastings (2006)

• White pupils make less progress between the ages of 11-16 compared with Black or Asian pupils.

• If current trends continue then White people will become the lowest performing ethcnic group in the UK.

Links between ethnicity, social class, and gender.

It is important to realise that within different groups, there are big differences between male and female, and between social classes:

• Within every ethnic group, middle-class pupils do better than working-class pupils:

• Among all groups except Gypsy/Roma children, girls outperform boys.

External Factors:

• Cultural deprivation

• Material deprivation and class theories

• Racism in wider society.

Culture Deprivation:

Theories have looked at inadequate socialisation as a reason for educational underachievement in some BAME (Black and Minority Ethnicities), they focus on three areas:

• Intellectual and linguistic skills.

• Attitudes and values.

• Family structure and parental support

This is a controversial theory that blames BAME families for their underachievement.

Intellectual and Linguistic Skills

This supports that many BAME families (particularly black low-income groups) lack adequate stimulation and linguistic development through their socialisation.

Bowker (1968)

• A lack of standard English creates a huge barrier to UK Education.

Bereiter and Engelmann (1966)

• The language spoken in low-income Black American families is inadequate for education success.

Evaluation:

The Swann Report (1985) found that language differences had little impact on educational achievement.

Peterborough, 2013 - All migrant schools - All students performing well.

Attitudes and Values:

This suggested that different ethnic groups are socialised (or ‘inherit’) different attitudes and values - including a lack of motivation.

Cultural deprivation theorists claim that Black children have fatalistic attitudes, just as they claim this for the working-class as well.

Evaluation:

Very outdated - can’t be applied everywhere

Family Structure and Parental Support:

Many sociologists argue that ‘dysfunctional’ family types are to blame for the underachievement of certain ethnic groups.

Murray (1984)

• African/Caribbean lone-parenthood is to blame.

• Lack of male role models means that mothers struggle to socialise children adequately.

Scruton (1986)

• Low achievement is the result of ethnic minorities failing to embrace and conform to British culture.

Evaluation:

• Outdated - not applicable to today’s society

• Murray’s theory - skate goat (do something for no reason but make up a reason).

Pryce (1979)

• Comparing the achievements of Black Caribbean and Asian pupils

• Asian pupils achieve higher because their culture is more resistant to racism.

• This is because of the differing impact of colonialism on the two groups - Black people experienced transportation and slavery, which led to the loss of their language, religion and family systems.

• As a result, some Black pupils have low self-esteem and underachieve.

• In contrast, Asian languages, religions, family structures remained intact, therefore, their culture gives Asian people a greater sense of self-worth.

Evaluation:

Pryce was Black - he may have first-hand experience to justify his claims (verstehen and interpretivists)

Fathers, Gangs, and Culture:

Sewell

• The problem is not absent fathers, but rather a lack of ‘tough love’ - firm, fair, respectful, and non-abusive discipline.

• Boys turn to street gangs for role-models.

• This leads to peer pressure to be anti-school.

• Wanting to do well in education was seen as ‘selling out’.

• This can be overcome by raising the aspirations of Black boys and by having greater expectations of them

Arnot (2004)

• The media have created a negative anti-school role model for Black pupils in particular, which is described as the ‘ultra-tough ghetto superstar’ reinforced through rap lyrics and MTV videos.

• Exposed to guns, drugs, knives from Black role models.

Asian Families:

Drive and Ballard (1981)

• Asian families bring educational benefits:

• Positive attitudes towards education.

• High expectations for the future.

Lupton (2004)

• Adult authority in Asian families is similar to the model that operates in schools.

• Expectation of respect towards adults.

White Working-class Families:

• 80% of 11-16 year old ethnic minority pupils applied to go to university.

• 68% of White pupils did.

Lupton

• This lower level of aspiration and achievement may be due to a lack of parental support.

Evans (2006)

• ‘Street’ culture in White working-class areas is to blame for underachievement.

Material Deprivation:

Palmer (2012)

• Almost half ethnic minority children live in low income households.

• Minority ethnic groups are twice as likely to be unemployed as white people.

• Minority households are 3x likely to be homeless.

• Almost half of Bangladeshi and Pakistanis earn under £7 an hour compared to 1/4 of White people.

The Swann Report (1985)

• Social class differences account for a high proportion of differences in achievement between ethnic groups (intersectionality).

Reasons:

• Many ethnic minority groups live in economically depressed areas.

• Purdah (religious and social practice of covering face, skin and hair) may prevent Muslim women from working.

• May lack recognised qualifications and language skills if recently travelled to the UK - refugees.

• Asylum seekers may be prevented from seeking work.

• Racism in work and housing may prevent many from gaining jobs and places to live.

Racism in Wider Society:

Wood et al (2010)

• Sent identical letters to 100 top UK companies but alternated between the names ‘Evans’ and ‘Patel’.

• The replies to the ‘White’ candidate were more helpful and responsive.

Mason (2000)

• ‘Discrimination is a continuing and persistent future of the experience of Britain’s citizens of minority ethnic origin’

Rex (1986)

• Racism leads to social exclusion and this to poverty. This is shown in housing, employment, and education. Racism also leads to discrimination inside and outside the classroom.

Internal Factors

Challenging Cultural Deprivation

Gillborn and Mirza (2000)

• It is the actions of schools and not cultural background which causes ethnic minority underachievement.

• In one local education authority, Black pupils were the highest achieved at the start of primary but were the worst performers at GCSE.

• A pupil’s culture doesn’t change over time, so it must be schools’ actions that are shaping pupils’ performance.

Internal Factors:

• Labelling and Teacher Racism

• Teacher Perception of Pupil Identity

• Pupil Subcultures

• Institutional Racism

Assumptions teachers may make of pupils from different ethnic backgrounds:

• Their behaviour

• Their customs/culture

• Their attitudes towards school and work

• Their attitudes towards sex and relationships

• Their family backgrounds

Labelling and Teacher Racism:

Interactionists focus on understanding educational achievement by looking at face-to-face interactions:

• Teachers tend to see white pupils as close to the ‘ideal’.

• Therefore, treat BAME pupils differently.

• This can be seen in a variety of ways.

Gillborn and Youdell (2000) - Use of Discipline

• Found that teachers were quicker to discipline Black pupils than others for the same behaviour.

• Result of teachers’ ‘racialised expectations’

• Teachers expected Black pupils to present more discipline and saw their behaviour as threatening and a challenge to authority.

• The pupils tended to respond negatively so further conflict resulted.

• Black pupils felt teachers underestimated their ability and picked on.

• The conflict between White teachers and Black pupils stems from racial stereotypes rather than their actual behaviour.

Osler (2001) - Use of Discipline

• Black pupils are more likely to suffer unrecorded unofficial exclusions, ‘internal exclusions’ (sent out from class), and sent to pupil referral units (PRUs).

• Excluded them from access to mainstream curriculum.

Foster (1990) - Streaming

• Stereotypes of Black pupils as badly behaved could result in being placed in lower sets than other pupils of similar abilities.

• This can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy of underachievement.

Wright (1992) - Disapproval of Language and Culture

• Asian pupils can be victims of teacher labelling.

• Despite the school's commitment to equality, teachers held ethnocentric views.

• Viewed British culture and Standard English as superior.

• Teachers assumed Asian pupils had a poor grasp of English and left them out of class discussions or used simplistic, childish language when speaking to them.

• Asian pupils felt isolated when teachers expressed disapproval of culture/customs or mispronounced names.

• Teachers didn’t see them as a threat (unlike Black pupils).

• Rather saw them as a problem they could ignore.

Pupil Identities:

Archer

• Teachers often stereotype pupils according to their ethnic backgrounds.

• They tend to see ethnic minority identities as lacking ‘ideal’ qualities.

• Even minority ethnic students who are successful can be regarded as negative.

Pupil Responses and Subcultures:

Rejection of Negative Labels

Fuller

• Black girls conformed to school work but showed a rejection of school culture generally (jewellery).

Mac an Ghaill

• Asian girls committed themselves to academic success to prove teachers wrong (self-refuting prophecy)

The Variety of Boys’ Response

Sewell

• Boys either respond through rebellion, conformity, retreatism, or innovation.

Evaluation:

• Looking at individual teacher racism ignores the structural racism of the system.

• Labelling theory suggests that labels will always lead to self-fulfilling prophecy, and therefore failure - this is not always the case.

Individual Racism - A single person or group of people who are overtly or covertly racist towards BAME individuals.

Institutional Racism - Racism towards BAME individuals from sectors and companies, usually by making policies and initiatives.

Institutional Racism:

Key Terms

Critical Race Theory:

• Racism is built into society.

Locked-in Equality:

• In education, discrimination against minority ethnic groups is deep-rooted, practically inevitable, and often subconscious.

Five Areas of Interest for Critical Race Theory

• Marketisation and Segregation

• The Ethnocentric Curriculum

• Assessment

• Access to Opportunities

• The ‘New IQism’

Marketisation and Segregation

Gillborn

• Found that because schools have been given more marketisation, it allows negative stereotypes to influence pupils' decisions about school admissions.

Moore and Davenport

• Selection procedure lead to ethnic segregation, with minority pupils failing to get into better secondary schools due to discrimination.

Racial Equality Commission (1993)

• Racism in the admission process means ethnic minority pupils are more likely to end up in unpopular schools.

• Reports from primary schools that stereotype minority pupils.

• Racist bias interviews for school places.

• Lack of information and application forms in minority languages.

• Ethnic minority parents are often unaware of how the waiting list system works and the importance of deadlines.

The Ethnocentric Curriculum

• An attitude or policy that gives priority that gives priority to the culture and viewpoint of one particular ethnic group, whilst disregarding others.

• It’s a curriculum that reflects the culture of one (dominant) ethnic group, and it’s culture.

• Many sociologists claim that the ethnocentric curriculum is a primary reason and example of institutional racism, because it builds a racial bias into the everyday workings of schools and colleges.

Examples:

• Languages, literature and music - Troyna and Williams note the meagre provision for teaching Asian languages.

• History - Ball (1994) criticises the national curriculum for ignoring ethnic diversity and for promoting an attitude of ‘little Englandism’ eg. The history curriculum tries to recreate a ‘mythical age of empire and past glories’, while ignoring the history of Black and Asian people.

Coard (1971;2005)

• Explains how the ethnocentric curriculum may produce underachievement.

• In History, the British may be presented as bringing civilization to the ‘primitive’ peoples they colonised.

• He argues the image of Black people as inferior. Undermines Black children’s self-esteem that leads to their failure.

Stone (1981)

• Not clear what impact the ethnocentric curriculum has.

• Whilst it ignores Asisan culture, Indian and Chinese pupils’ achievement is still above the national average.

• In total, it can be argued that Black children do not in fact suffer from a low self-esteem.

David (1993)

• Described the national curriculum as ‘specifically British’, which ignores any non-european languages, literature and music.

Assessment

Gillborn (2008)

• Argues that ‘the assessment game’ is rigged so as to validate the dominant culture’s superiority.

• For example, in the past, primary schools used baseline assessments, however these were replaced in 2003 with a new way of measuring pupils' abilities. This change meant that overnight, Black pupils were now doing significantly worse than white people

• In 2000, Black pupils had been the highest achievers on entry to school (20% above average), by 2003 the new assessment criteria had Black children ranked lower than White across all six development areas that it measured.

• He stated that ‘the new assessment has established Black failure as once again, the norm’

• Gillborn explains this reversal as a result of two institutional factors:

• The FSP (measurement of children’s skills and abilities) is based entirely on teachers’ judgements, whereas baseline assessments are often used in tests as well.

• A change in the timing: the FSP is completed at the end of the year, whereas baseline assessments were done at the start of primary school.

• Gillborn argues that both these factors increase the risk of teachers’ stereotyping affecting the results.

Sanders and Horn (1995)

• Found that where more weighting was given to tasks assessed by teachers rather than written exams, the gaps between the scores of different ethnic groups widened.

Access to Opportunities

Exam Tiers

Tikly et al (2006)

• 30 schools included ‘Aiming High’ initiative to raise Black Caribbean pupils’ achievement.

• Black pupils were more likely to enter lower tiered GCSE exams.

• Due to Black people more likely to be placed in lower sets, no opportunity to be entered for higher tiers.

• Can only get grade C at best.

The Gifted and Talented Programme

• Created for meeting needs of more able pupils in inner-city schools.

• Benefited more brighter pupils.

Gillborn (2008)

• White people are 2x as likely to be entered in the gifted and talented programme than Black Caribbean pupils, and 5x more likely than Black Africans.

Strand (2012)

• Analysis of large scale data from longitudinal study of pupils in England.

• Shows a White-Black achievement gap in maths and science tests at age 14.

• Found this to be the result of Black pupils being systemically underrepresented in higher-tier tests.

The ‘New IQism’

New IQism

• Teachers and policymakers making false assumptions about students ability or potential.

• Arguably, the test used to decide which stream a student should go into is not an actual reflection of their potential. -  It may change as the time goes on

Gillborn

• Access to opportunities (higher sets, and Gifted and Talented programme) depends majorly on the teacher’s assessment. This may be harmful, especially towards Black people because it may be biassed towards BAME pupils.

• Sets are not only chosen for students using their achievement and attainment, but also discipline and similar factors may have a great impact on what stream they’re placed in.

• Similar to Gillborn and Youdell’s theory on ‘racialised expectations’ and ‘use of discipline’. Black pupils are disciplined more often, so their behaviour is seen as more disruptive compared to a White pupil’s behaviour. This means they’re more likely to be in lower sets and have less access to opportunities.

Gillborn and Youdell (2001)

• Notes that secondary schools are increasingly using old-style intelligence (IQ tests) to allocate pupils to different streams on entry. 

• Gillborn notes “when teachers are asked to judge the ‘potential’ and/or ‘motivation’ of their students, they tend to place disproportionate numbers of Black students in low ranked groups.

• Gillborn says that there is no genuine way to measure ‘potential’.

• All an assessment measures is what they can do at the moment, rather than what they can achieve in the future.

• Gillborn’s analysis of school assessments says that the schools are institutionally racist, and it continually puts ethinic minorities at a disadvantage, as it is believed they have naturally less potential.

The criticism of Gillborn’s view towards ethnic differences in achievement are the result of institutional racism focusing on two issues:

• The underachievement of some minority groups such as Black boys.

• The overachievement of other minority groups such as Chinese and Indian pupils.